Machiavelli

Born in Florence (City state), 1469-1527. In a time of disunity, constant warfare, church and state, insecurity in Italian City states. 

He represents Italian Renaissance - humanism, secularism, scientific reasoning;

1512: Florence republic fell, Medici Monarchist rule was re-established- he was, jailed, released, banished;

Books:

1. Discourse on Livy - 1531
2. The Prince - 1532
3. The History of Florence
4. Belfagor
5. The Art of War
6. The Golden Ass
7. Mandragola

Founder of modern political science and political Realism, modern conception of state, and republic;

1. State as an end in itself existing for its own preservation and for its own advantage;

Nature of Man

1. Men are ungrateful, fickle, liars, and deceitful, coward, selfish and greedy;
2. Selfishness and egoism are the chief motive/forces of human conduct;
3. Fear dominate men's life more than the love. Men want security - preservation of life;
4. Because of boundless desire, insatiable pride, and inevitable scarcity, men are in a constant state of competition and conflict;
5. All the deceit in the world will not obviate the need for force, because men will 'use the malignity of their spirit whenever they have a free opportunity for it';
6. Political life is, at bottom, a battlefield where the strong subdue the weak and obtain preferential access to the limited number of goods;
7. Men are reluctant, though, to accept this harsh truth, and try to soften it by creating an illusory world of ideals that give a bogus moral justification to our predatory instincts;

The Prince: Lessons in Statecraft

1. Written for new, non-hereditary ruler of newly acquired Monarchies;
2. "Supreme Goal" - maintenance of the State. Because security, order, welfare for people possible only in secured/maintained state;
3. No separate bases of Authority and Legitimacy apart from the Power/Force;
4. State - non-ethical amoral entity, not bound by conventional morality;
5. No good or bad state; just or unjust ruler; Only effective or not effective state/ruler;
6. Political actions are to be judged only by its outcome - 'end justifies means';
7. Law & Arms - protectors of state; but without force, law is useless;
8. The justice of state is in the interest of the sovereign and the safety of state is the supreme law;
9. To maintain himself and his state a price must learn how not to be good and act as situation demands - last best option to secure common good;
10. Problem of dirty hands;
    
11. "Separation" of religion, ethics, and morality from political decision making;

Virtu

Requirements of power politics; range of personal qualities that the prince needs to acquire to "maintain his state" and to "achieve great things - glory"

1. Flexible Disposition: as fate and circumstances demand;
2. Pragmatism (political expediency) rather than conventional morality and goodness - learn how not be Good;
3. Effectiveness rather than praiseworthy actions;
4. Ruthlessness, Cunningness, Deceitfulness, Boldness, courage, and Shrewdness, and will power;
5. Lion & Fox: combined qualities of strength/force and Shrewdness;
6. Shrewd Analysis of human behavior and motives;
7. Mastery in power politics - acquiring power, destroying enemy's power, using power;
8. [Virtu is to power politics as conventional virtue is to moral goodness of legitimate ruler in classical sense];
9. Judicious use of violence/cruelty and benevolence; violence fast, reward/generosity slowly - in installments;
10. Rely on support of people than nobles/aristocrats;
11. Rely on own army than hired mercenaries; better to arm people;
12. Fear rather than love for political obligation; caution fear shouldn't convert into hate;
13. Pretentions: should wear mask, appear to be just, virtuous, moral, trustworthy, honest temperate but act opposite it situation demand so;

Fortuna: Fate, Destiny

1. As with Virtu, Fortuna is employed by him in a distinctive way;
2. Where conventional representations treated Fortuna as a mostly benign, if fickle, goddess, who is the source of human goods as well as evils;
3. Machiavelli's fortuna is a malevolent and uncompromising source of human misery, pain, and disaster;
4. Fortuna is enemy of political order, the ultimate threat to the safety and security of the state;
5. Compared fortuna as furious river destroying everything in its flood;
6. She shows her power where Virtu and wisdom do not prepare to resist her, and directs her fury where she knows that no dykes or embankments are ready to hold her;
7. Virtu provides the Prince the ability to respond to fortuna at any time and in any way that is necessary;

"The Discourses on Livy": Republicanism of Machiavelli

Written in 1517, 4 years after "The Prince" with very different theme, purpose, and audience.

Preferred Republic to Monarchy; Gave following reasoning for this:

1. Republics more flexible: Better able to adapt to changing situations (why?) - rigid nature/habit of individual (prince) vs diversity among citizens in republic (someone else may be chosen to lead);
2. Vox populi, vox dei: People wiser, more stable, and of better judgement than a prince;
3. Only in republic, with some conditions, freedom of the community (vivere libero) may be achieved;
4. Public spiritedness: People's participation, public discourse, rule of law, institutionalism and contention between the people & nobility keep Republic secure, free un corrupted and vibrant;
5. Republic is ruled by public speech (public discourse/deliberation) vs force/coercion and deception in Monarchy;
6. Republic is better able to achieve common good of its citizens; in Monarchy, the common good is often confused with the private good of the prince;

Recommendations for the republic:

1. His ideal was ancient Roman republic;
2. Good laws & good institution: required for security, liberty, and prosperity of the people; 
3. A minimal constitutional - subjects live securely (vivere sicuro);
   
4. A fully constitutional regime - freedom of the community (vivere libero);
5. Flexible institutions: changing with changed situation;
6. Mixed constitution: Monarchy, aristocracy and democracy;
7. Multitude/people are guided by virtuous/wise men;
8. Public discourse: deliberation through public speech;
9. Active contention (conflict) between the people and nobility - both take an active role in self-government;
10. Armed people: capable of securing themselves and the state;
11. Encouraging immigration, to have more free citizen, more strength;
12. Territorial expansion, subjugation of neighboring states, useful alliances;
13. Inculcating Public spiritedness, civic virtue and civic religion among the citizen;
14. Renewal or re-invention of the republic every 10 year;

Religion

1. Criticized the Roman Catholic church and Christian values and morality itself. To him, Christianity glorifies suffering and makes the people week, passive, merciful, effeminate;
2. For Machiavelli the church was the cause of Italy's disunity;
3. For him, Politics should be separated from religion; [values and morality Vs facts and Science]
4. Instrumental view on religion - in disciplining people and help ruler manipulate people's emotions. Religion as coercive force; Religion help inculcate civic virtue, part of public spirit along with liberty;
5. He praised the "Pagan" civic religions of ancient societies such as Rome, which he regarded to be more suitable for a city endowed with virtu;
6. But Machiavelli leaves it unclear whether he prefers atheism, paganism, or a reformed Christianity;
7. He also kept silence on his views on after life, eternity of soul, salvation etc;

People View to Him

1. Leo Strauss - Teacher of Evil, Preacher of Amorality, Advisor to Tyrants; [brought value back in Political theory]
2. Shakespeare - The murderous Machiavelli
3. Innocent Gentillet

His Admirers

1. Spinoza, Montesquieu
2. Rousseau
3. Voltaire and Diderot
4. George Sabine
5. Maxey
6. Skinner
7. Antonio Gramsci
8. Hobbs
9. Burke
10. Jefferson
11. Madison
12. Adm Smith