Aristotle

384-322 BC; Born in Stagira (near Macedonia), in a middle class family (father was doctor). During the time of fall of democracy in Athens and rise of Macedonia which conquered Athens;

He founded "Lyceum" - his own academy;

1. Father of Political Science, Political Realism; founder of Historical and Comparative methods, Constitutionalism, and formal logic;
2. He and Plato are considered founders of philosophical-normative approach;
3. “Each of them by himself may not be of good quality, but when they all come together is possible that they may surpass— collectively as a body, although not individually-the quality of the few best…and when they all meet together, the people may thus become something in the nature of a single person…”.
4. For him change in constitution was revolution;
5. Politics is an ethical activity concerned with creating a ‘just society’ and ensuring ‘good Life’ of the community
6. State is the highest form of political association aiming at the highest of goods

His main creation - 30 books (mostly lecture notes)

1. Nicomachean Ethics
2. Politics
3. Metaphysics
4. Rhetoric
5. On the Soul

Master writer on Biology, Mechanic, Astronomy, Logic, Economics, Politics, Theology, rhetoric, Poetics;

He Considered as

1. True Scientist
2. The Philosopher
3. First Teacher
4. The Master of Them That Know

Theory of Form and Causes

1. "Materialism" & "Realism": world of being (ideas) and world of becoming (material world of our senses) are one and same;
2. We perceive the Form or Essence of anything from our sense, learnings, and experience - reality can be understood  from our senses, no need for imagining any other (intelligible) world;
3. Everything is made up on matter and form/substance/essence;

4 "Causes" - explanation of being anything - why anything is what it is?

1. "Formal Cause" - form/essence, which makes it what it is;
2. "Material Cause" - matter from which it is made;
3. "Efficient Cause" - what caused it to be; what happened from which it came into being;
4. "Final Cause" - what is its purpose of being;

Theory of Justic

1. He outlines his theory of justice in book 5 of the "Nicomachean Ethics"; he also outlines conception of political justice in "Politics";
2. Justice is not simply a state of mind, or a moral virtue, but also has to do with the rightness and wrongness of our actions;
3. General complete goodness (ethical/moral) and Particular justice (political) - one aspect if general justice;

Ethical Sense of Justice (in modern ages morality):

1. It is a complete virtue, morality personified and embodiment of all that is "Good";
2. Justic is virtue; it is virtue in action; virtue in practice;
3. [Reason is a virtue, but the reasonable/rational conduct is justice; truth is a virtue, but to be truthful is justice];
4. "The good is the sphere of politics is justice, and justice contains what tends to promote the common interest";
5. Justice is righteousness or what doing the right thing, that is to say with lawfulness and with obedience to law;
6. It is abstract or formal principles of justice;

[For him laws are moral command of society, for common good; sparkly different from the idea of laws of today]

Political Conception of Justice:

1. Justice as 'fairness' in distribution of income, wealth, rewards, honors, political offices, punishments etc.;
2. Base on the principle of equality - proportional (like should be treat like and unlike should be unlike) and arithmetic equality;
3. It deals with the concrete realization of these principles in the historical circumstances of particular "Polis" and with the differences which exist between "Polis" in this respect;
4. Justice as the very virtue of the state/polis;
5. "Just" - what is lawful and fair and equal;
6. In his "Politics", tile view about justice is distributive and corrective and linked to the notion of equity - proportionate and arithmetic equality respectively;
7. Legel and Right based conception of Justice;

Distributive Justice:

1. Distributive justice hands out honors and rewards according to merits of the recipients - equals to be treated equally and unequal unequally;
2. Rewards in proportion to what one contributes and as per his merit - proportionate equality;

Corrective/Rectifactory Justice:

1. Regulating the social or ethical relationships between the citizens of a particular "Polis";
2. "Arithmetic Equality" - simple reciprocity" - do with others what you would do with yourself;

Conception of State (Polis)

[In his book "Politics", introduce his conception of State]

1. Unity of Politics and Ethics;
2. Like Plato, he believed State represent supreme moral and ethical virtue of a political community, Law contain moral goodness; [people form state to live a good fulfill life]
3. Individual-family-village-Polis;
4. State is a natural entity, prior to individual -state - whole, individual - its part; one who don't need state is not human, either God or Beast;
5. Only living in Polis, individual can attain "Eudemonia" - fulfilment & happiness - final cause/purpose/end/goal of being human;
6. Polis has 3 classes - very rich, very poor, middle class; [concept of golden mean introduce in "Nicomachean Ethics"]
7. Best possible state - small size, homogenous population, moderate richness, ruled by middle class, rule of law (constitutionalism), justice - equity - principle of equality is standard for distribution of political power/offices;

Types of Constitution/Government

1. Comparative study of 158 constitution;
2. He applied his theory of Justice - who should rule in the ideal state (polis)? and in whose interest?
3. Distributive Justice - on what basis (standard) political power/offices be distributed? Wealth? citizenship? Moral virtue?
4. For him nobility, merit, or excellence - moral goodness or virtue should be the basis of distributing political power;
5. Constitution - 2 elements: Ethical - define end/goal/purpose and identity;  Political - political structure of political institutions and distribution of powers/offices;

Base on who is ruling and whose interest he categories type of constitution/government:

These 6 types of Government/constitution are pure, ideal;

1. Best possible or practicable Government/constitution shall be combination of Polity and Aristocracy;
2. Best or ideal constitution is one in which political power is distributed, not simply in accordance with the principle of equity or proportional equality but also in accordance with the correct standard of virtue or goodness;
3. "Polity" - rule by many, equity among citizen, rule in the interest of "common good";
4. "Aristocracy" - minority who are meritorious, virtuous, and wise people counteract the "the people" who may not be virtuous or wise;
5. He name it "Polity" [different from the polity of constitution/government type he categories];
6. There is only one constitution ("Polity") which is "naturally the best everywhere"; [he talk about relativism in different constitutions in different state, but here is universalism]
7. "Cycle of change" - Monarchy-tyranny-aristocracy-oligarchy-polity-democracy-monarchy;

[democracy, rule for few by many (in appearance)]

Household- Family

1. Primary and essential unit of the Polis, help build society and maintain it;
2. Household - Husband, wife, children, slave, property;
3. Hierarchical relation to maintain order & harmony: Reflect natural inequality based on sex, age, ability; Master-slave, Husband-Wife, Farther-Child - all 3 are different kinds of hierarchical relation; Harmonies family - all member work according to their assigned role/responsibilities for the common good of the family;
4. "Private and Public": Family is in private realm, world of particular; to be separate/secluded from affairs of the Polis - public - world of universal;

Status and Role of Women:

1. Women - inferior to mem, a incomplete defective male;
2. Has reason, not fully developed and if has do not has authority; hence, she has to be under command of male;
3. Important role to manage household - domestic affairs, keep & store property;
4. Women are free being, half of free-men of the Polis, hence their education, well being must be ensured;
5. Women should be kept away from Public Realm because their deliverrative capabilities were inconclusive;

Property & Wealth

1. Unlike Plato, he supported private property & wealth but with conditions;

Reasons for supporting private property:

1. Property & wealth means to achieve purpose of human life - good & fulfilled life; [property & wealth do not have any meaning or importance in itself]
2. Property - essential part of the family/household;
3. Property provides psychological satisfaction by fulfilling the human instinct for possession and ownership;
4. Property & wealth enable citizen leisure & comforts to use his reasons/rationality/virtue for participating in affairs of the Polis;
5. Best possible Polis is one having moderate wealth; middle class best suited to rule;

Conditions:

1. Property should be acquired through just and honest means;
2. Property should have use value; hence primary occupation - framing, fishing, cattle/sheep rearing, hunting/gathering - are good/just;
3. Exchange/batter to acquire utility items is also allowed. But trading for profit not good; profiting from money lent on interest is worst way to generate wealth;
4. Too much wealth is not good. Virtue, not mere wealth, should be criteria for political offices;

Slavery

1. Considered Slave as part of household and like any other possession/property;
2. Supported Slavery with following reasons and conditions;

Reasons:

1. Natural: Slaves lack reason/rationality and self-control which are necessary for self-governing hence, they are to be ruled by virtuous & rational master; By nature some are servile and some dominat; Inequlity and relation of subordination and ruler are natural;
2. Social requirements (expediency): Slave & master is mutually beneficial relation - slave make master free to participate in Polis and master help slave lead somewhat virtuous life; Divison of labor, slave - strong body fit for physical tough job, Master - strong in reason/rationality - fit for political, economci, higher - pursuits;

Conditions:

1. Enslavement justified only if slave lack virtue/reason; winning war, and paying debt shouldn't be cause for slavery;
2. Master must be more virtuous than the slave;
3. Slave should be treated well, and should be made free for their good service;

[He realized and anticipated no need for slavery with technological advancements]